Pompeii, the city buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, offers a fascinating glimpse into the daily life of the Romans, including their medical practices. Historical sources and archaeological findings reveal a complex medical system influenced by both the magico-religious tradition and Greek science.
The Origins of Roman Medicine: Between Religion and Magic.
Before the arrival of Greek scientific medicine, the Romans relied on empirical medicine, passed down orally and based on rituals and folk beliefs. This “scientia herbarum” used plants and organic substances to cure ailments. Religion played a key role in this primitive medicine. Deities such as Salus (Health), Carna (protector of children's health) and Febris (the Fever) were invoked for healing.
Alongside religious medicine, magical medicine thrived, practiced by magician-healers who used spells and filters to ward off disease. At Pompeii, numerous amulets, such as pantheistic hands, phalluses, and vulvas, have been found, testifying to the belief in magical power for protection from disease and the evil eye.
Greek Influence and the Birth of Scientific Medicine.
The Roman conquest of Hellenistic territories in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC marked a turning point for Roman medicine. Greek physicians brought their scientific knowledge with them, profoundly influencing medical practice, especially among the upper classes.
Hippocrates, considered the father of Western medicine, argued that health depended on the balance of the body's four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Another important figure was Asclepias, who proposed a molecular theory of disease, attributing its cause to an alteration in the movement of atoms in the body.
Prominent among Roman physicians was Aulus Cornelius Celsus, author of the treatise De Medicina. Celsus, an excellent pharmacologist and surgeon, integrated Hippocratic and Asclepiadic doctrines with the Roman practical mindset. Antony Musa, famous for curing Emperor Augustus with cold hydrotherapy and diet, was an advocate of the healing power of plants such as chicory, lettuce, and endive.
Doctors in Pompeii: Professional Figures and Places of Care
In Pompeii, physicians practiced either at home or in clinics called medicina or taberna medica. There were also medical specialists, particularly ophthalmologists (ocularii), who treated eye ailments with eye drops made from plant or mineral substances.
Archaeological sources reveal the presence of medical garrisons in Pompeii. At the Great Gymnasium, there was a first aid station for sports injuries. Some houses, such as the House of the Surgeon, have been identified as possible clinics or pharmacies, thanks to the discovery of surgical instruments and medical equipment. The House of the Gladiator Physician, located near the barracks, provided medical care for gladiators.
The Pompeian Pharmacopoeia: A Mix of Experimentation and Superstition.
The Romans used a wide range of substances in their pharmacopoeia, including herbs, minerals, and animal products. Plants such as garlic, silphium, balsam, saffron, and opium were widely used for their healing properties. Clay was used to treat skin diseases, while auripigmentum (yellow sulfide of arsenic) was a disinfectant for wounds.
Remedies of animal origin included goose fat for inflammation of the uterus, spider web as a hemostatic, viper bile for eye drops, and viper meat for malignant ulcers.
The Roman pharmacopoeia, however, was not without superstitions. The “medicine of signatures” associated the healing properties of plants with their resemblance to human organs. Bizarre remedies based on animal dung or donkey blood testify to the persistence of irrational beliefs.
Surgery: A Developing Discipline.
Roman medicine, influenced by the anatomical studies of the Alexandrians, made significant advances in surgery. Roman surgeons were able to perform complex operations such as cesarean delivery, removal of the cornea, reduction of hernias, drilling of the skull, amputation of limbs, and extirpation of tumors. They used anesthetics such as opium and mandrake juice to relieve pain.
The discovery of the Surgeon's House in Pompeii revealed a collection of surgical instruments, including scalpels, forceps, hooks, probes, specils, and suction cups, providing valuable evidence of surgical techniques in use.
Health System in Pompeii: Presidia and Pharmaceutical Workshops.
Sources show that Pompeii had a surprisingly advanced health care system for the time. Numerous archaeological finds suggest the presence of physicians, surgeons, veterinarians, and a wide variety of pharmaceutical workshops and health garrisons.
Sanitary Garrisons:
Great Gymnasium: Near the main gate was a first-aid garrison (theca vulneraria), probably run by physician P. Terentius Celadus, whose name is engraved on a wall. The need for first aid at this location was dictated by the high probability of injuries during physical activities.
House of the Gladiator Physician: Located next to the gladiator barracks, this house featured an outpatient clinic and stone benches for waiting patients, demonstrating the constant presence of a physician to treat gladiators during training and fighting.
Pharmaceutical Workshops and Doctors' Houses:
Surgeon's House: The finding of numerous surgical instruments, some of them for veterinary use, suggests that the inhabitant was a physician. The presence of veterinary instruments is explained by the proximity of the house to Herculaneum Gate, where stables and horse changing stations were located.
Workshop VI, 4, 1 (Consular Street): Identified as a “pharmaceutical workshop” due to the finding of jars, bottles with residues of chemical preparations, pills, a spoon and saucer for ointments.
House of Pupio: A box with surgical instruments was found in a room overlooking the garden.
House of the Centaur and House of A.Vettius Caprasius Felix: The presence of a large number of medical and pharmaceutical equipment in these two adjoining houses suggests that this was a pharmaceutical workshop.
Physician's House: A large room on the ground floor, probably used for public use, contained a large quantity of surgical instruments and pharmaceutical tools, suggesting a pharmacy. The physician A. Pumponius Magonianus lived on the upper floor.
House of Philippus: The structure of the house, with multiple rooms on two floors and two separate entrances, suggests a clinic. Numerous medical instruments were found, including probes, tweezers, and small bottles.
House of the New Physician: Finding of surgical instruments in all rooms, suggesting the possible function of a clinic.
House of Marcus Lucretius: The presence of surgical instruments along with other business-related items suggests that a member of the family was a physician. The adjoining store may have been an outpatient clinic or a resale of surgical instruments.
House of the New Physician II: Several surgical instruments, including a forceps and a uterus speculum, were found in a room identified as an outpatient clinic. The image of the centaur Chiron, a mythological physician, painted in the tablinum reinforces the hypothesis of the presence of medical activities.
Conclusions: A Medical System in Transition
The abundance of archaeological finds in Pompeii testifies to an organized and relatively complex health care system, with the presence of various professionals and facilities dedicated to health care, both human and animal. The variety of surgical instruments found also demonstrates a level of medical and surgical knowledge that was quite advanced for the time.
Medicine in Pompeii was a system in transition, in which the magical-religious tradition was intertwined with Greek medical science. Pompeian physicians, respected professional figures, used a wide range of remedies, both effective and superstition-based. Surgery, a rapidly developing discipline, allowed for complex operations, thanks to anatomical advances and the availability of surgical instruments.
FAQ on Medicine in Pompeii
What were the main medical beliefs in Pompeii before Greek influence?
Before the arrival of Greek medicine, in Pompeii, as in much of the Roman world, medicine was a mix of empirical practices, religion, and magic. Illnesses were often attributed to spiritual imbalances or the influence of supernatural forces.
Domestic medicine, based on traditional herbal knowledge, was practiced by the pater familias.
Religion played an important role, with deities such as Salus, Carna, and Febris invoked for healing.
Magic was widespread, with magician-healers using spells and filters. Protective amulets against the evil eye were common.
How did Greek medicine influence medical practices in Pompeii?
The Roman conquest of Hellenistic territories brought a significant influence of Greek medicine to Pompeii, as it did to Rome. Greek physicians introduced medical theories and practices based on observation and logic, revolutionizing Roman medicine, especially among the elites.
Hippocrates, the father of Western medicine, introduced the theory of humors, according to which health depended on the balance of four bodily fluids.
Asclepias proposed a molecular theory of disease, attributing it to an alteration in the movement of atoms.
Who were some of the most important physicians and what were their specializations?
Archaeological sources and graffiti at Pompeii mention several physicians:
Aulus Cornelius Celsus: An important Roman physician, author of the treatise De Medicina, which integrated Greek knowledge with Roman practice. He was an expert in pharmacology and surgery.
Antony Musa: Famous for treating Emperor Augustus, he was an advocate of cold hydrotherapy and vegetable-based diets.
Pierus Terentius Celadus: A Pompeii physician mentioned in a graffito on the Great Gymnasium. The discovery of a box of surgical instruments suggests that he was an expert surgeon.
In addition to general practitioners, there were also specialists, such as ophthalmologists (ocularii), who treated eye disorders with eye drops.
What were the places of treatment in Pompeii?
Pompeii offered several options for medical care:
Medical clinics (medicina or taberna medica) run by physicians.
Private houses, such as the Surgeon's House, which may have been used as clinics or pharmacies.
Medical garrisons, such as the one at the Great Gymnasium, for first aid in case of sports injuries.
The House of the Gladiator Physician, which provided medical care for gladiators.
What substances were used in the Pompeian pharmacopoeia?
Pompeian pharmacopoeia was a mix of effective remedies and superstitions. They used:
Plants: Garlic, silphium, balsam, saffron, opium, and many other medicinal herbs.
Minerals: Clay for skin diseases, auripigmentum as a disinfectant.
Animal products: Goose fat, cobweb, bile, and viper meat.
Some remedies were based on magical beliefs, such as “signatures medicine” or the use of animal dung.
What was the standard of surgery in Pompeii?
Roman surgeons were able to perform complex operations, including:
Caesarean section
Removal of the cornea
Reduction of hernias
Drilling of the skull
Amputation of limbs
Extirpation of tumors
They used anesthetics such as opium and mandrake juice to relieve pain. The discovery of numerous surgical instruments at Pompeii demonstrates the advanced level of Roman surgery.
Essential bibliography: