Pompeii offers a unique window into life and death in ancient Rome. Its necropolises, located outside the walls along major thoroughfares, preserve a variety of funerary monuments that reflect beliefs and practices related to the cult of the dead.
Pompeii's Necropolises: a priceless archaeological heritage
Pompeii's necropolises extend along the main arteries that connected the city to other neighboring centers: the Via dei Sepolcri (Herculaneum Gate - coastal settlements, Neapolis and Cumae), the Via Nucerina (Pompeii - Nuceria and, via the Via Popilia, to other southern centers), the Via Stabiana (Pompeii - Stabia) and the road that, starting west of Porta Vesuvio, led to the Pagus Augusti Felix Suburbanus.
These funerary areas, rich in monuments of different periods and architectural types, offer a vivid picture of Roman funerary customs, from the simplest to the most lavish. Schola tombs, aedicule tombs, enclosed tombs, and memorial plaques testify to the importance attached to the memory of the deceased and to the maintenance of their social status even after death.
Funeral Rites: from conclamatio to burial
Funeral ritual in Pompeii followed a precise ceremonial. After death, the deceased was washed, perfumed, and dressed in the garb most appropriate to their social status. His name was pronounced for the last time (conclamatio) and a last kiss was given.
The funeral procession (pompa) was conducted in different ways depending on the social rank of the deceased. Public funerals (funus indictivum) of distinguished persons or benefactors were announced by the town crier and were distinguished by pomp and magnificence. Ancient norms aimed to curb exaggeration, but often funeral pomp became an occasion for ostentation and display of wealth.
At Pompeii, the prevailing funerary practice was cremation. The poor were cremated at the burial site itself (bustum), while elaborate pyres were set up for the wealthy in special places (ustrinum). Gifts and objects belonging to the deceased were burned along with the body. Ashes were collected in urns and laid in monumental tombs or simple burials.
The Tomb: projection of the social image
The tomb, in addition to housing the remains of the deceased, assumed a strong symbolic value as a projection of the social image of the deceased and his family. The architecture, decorations, inscriptions, and grave goods helped perpetuate the memory of the deceased and convey information about his status, profession, and virtues to posterity.
The Cult of the Dead: libations and memorial feasts
The cult of the dead did not end with burial. Graves were equipped with conduits that allowed libations of wine, oil, and honey to be poured directly onto the urn. These ritual offerings, along with prayers and invocations, served to nourish the deceased and keep their memory alive.
In addition, memorial festivals (Parentalia and Feralia) were celebrated in honor of the deceased, during which graves were visited, offerings were brought, and religious ceremonies were held.
The importance of funerary inscriptions
Funeral inscriptions, engraved on the walls of monuments or on tombstones, played a key role in perpetuating the memory of the deceased. In addition to the name, they often recorded the career (cursus honorum), offices held and charitable works performed in life. Through the inscriptions, the deceased continued to “speak” to the living, passing on their name and deeds to future generations.
The Scholae of Pompeii: a unicum in the Roman world
Among Pompeii's funerary monuments, a prominent place belongs to the scholae tombs, a type of burial characteristic of the Vesuvian city and not attested in other areas of the Roman world. These are monuments intended for prominent members of the city's elite (magistrates, priests, priestesses) and erected at public expense by decurion decree.
The schola consists of a semicircular tufa seat with lion's paw terminations, behind which stands a small enclosure, perhaps a garden sacrae tutelae. The funerary inscription is often engraved on the back of the seat. To date, eight schola tombs have been found in the Pompeian necropolis, distributed among Porta Stabia, Porta Ercolano, Porta Nola and Porta Vesuvio. Their chronology lies in the Julio-Claudian period, from the height of the Augustan age to the middle of the first century AD.
Numerius Agrestinus Equitius Pulcher: a prominent figure.
A significant example of a person buried in a schola tomb is Numerius Agrestinus Equitius Pulcher, a military tribune and prefect of the fabri. His tomb, discovered in 2024 during work on the new library at the Pompeii Archaeological Park, contains an inscription detailing his career and social status.
The same person is also attested in another funerary inscription in the Porta Nocera necropolis, confirming his importance in Pompeian society.
The Collegia Funeraticia: solidarity and welfare
To meet the expenses of the funeral and related rites, especially for the less affluent classes, collegia funeraticia, associations that guaranteed their members a dignified funeral and the celebration of rites in their honor, became widespread in Pompeii. These collegia, composed mainly of slaves and freedmen, were based on a system of monthly contributions that made it possible to meet funeral expenses without burdening families.
Conclusions
The cult of the dead and funerary rites in Pompeii reflect a complex and articulated belief system in which the memory of the deceased, the maintenance of their social status and the care of their well-being in the afterlife played a major role.
Through the analysis of funerary monuments, inscriptions, grave goods and ritual practices, Pompeii offers us valuable evidence of the relationship between the living and the dead in the Roman world, a world in which death did not represent the end, but the transition to a new form of existence.
FAQ on the cult of the dead and funeral rites in Pompeii
Where are the necropolises of Pompeii located?
Pompeii's necropolises are located outside the city walls, along the main arteries that connected the city to other nearby centers. These include:
The Via dei Sepolcri, which ran from the Herculaneum Gate to the coastal settlements, Neapolis and Cumae.
The Via Nucerina, which connected Pompeii to Nuceria and, via the Via Popilia, to the other southern centers.
The Via Stabiana, which led to Stabia.
The road that, branching off west of Porta Vesuvius, led to the Pagus Augusti Felix Suburbanus.
What were the funeral rites in Pompeii?
A series of rituals were related to death and the care of the deceased after burial. Funeral rites in Pompeii, as in much of the Roman world, included a series of stages:
Conclamatio: after closing the eyes of the deceased and giving him a last kiss, his name was spoken aloud.
Preparation of the body: the body was washed, perfumed and dressed in the most appropriate garb to enhance its social status, often the toga.
Funeral pomp: the funeral procession (pomp) was conducted in different ways depending on the social rank of the deceased.
Cremation: the body was cremated on a pyre (bustum or ustrinum).
Ash collection: the ashes of the deceased were collected in an urn and placed in a tomb.
What types of tombs were common in Pompeii?
Several types of tombs have been found in Pompeii, including:
Schola tombs: typical of Pompeii, shaped like a semicircular seat with a griffin's foot termination, behind which a plinth usually stands. Often the funerary inscription is engraved on the back of the seat. They were intended for prominent figures of the city elite and erected at public expense by decurion decree.
Altar tombs: consisting of a high base on which stands an altar with pulvini, usually decorated with a Doric frieze.
Aedicule tombs: inspired by Hellenistic models, characterized by a small temple-like structure, inside which statues of the deceased are placed.
Enclosure tombs: consisting of an uncovered area circumscribed by a wall opening onto the street, with a facade sometimes crowned by a tympanum and decorated with paintings.
Other types: there were also other types of tombs that were less common in Pompeii, such as the drum tomb of Veia Barchilla, the dado tomb of the Stronnii, and the funerary monument of Septumia.
How did the cult of the dead take place in Pompeii?
In addition to funeral rites, the cult of the dead at Pompeii included:
Funeral libations: urns that contained ashes were generally connected to the ground surface by a conduit that allowed libations of wine, oil and honey to be poured directly into the urn.
Feasts of the Dead: commemorative festivals (Parentalia and Feralia) were celebrated in honor of the dead, during which graves were visited, offerings were brought, and religious ceremonies were held.
Collegia funeraticia: for the less affluent classes, there were associations (collegia funeraticia) that took care of funeral expenses and related rituals.
Why were funerary inscriptions important?
Funeral inscriptions were important because they perpetuated the memory of the deceased and revealed his or her identity. In addition to the name, they often recorded the career (cursus honorum), offices held, and charitable works performed in life.
What does the discovery of the tomb of Numerius Agrestinus Equitius Pulcher tell us?
The discovery of the tomb of Numerius Agrestinus Equitius Pulcher, a military tribune and prefect of the fabri, is important because it provides information about the type of tombs intended for Pompeii's leading figures and their careers. His schola tomb was discovered in 2024 during work on the new library at Pompeii Archaeological Park. The same personage is also attested in another funerary inscription in the Porta Nocera necropolis.
Why was the architecture of tombs important?
The placement of funerary monuments and the choice of architectural typology responded to ideological needs: the tomb played a decisive role as a projection of the image of the individual to the community and a tangible sign of the status of the deceased and his family. Funerary monuments tended to be arranged in close proximity to important streets, progressively occupying first the resulting spaces between the oldest monuments and then, when the space in the front row was exhausted, creating rows parallel to the street.
Essential bibliography:
M. Paoletti, Usi funerari e forme del sepolcro, in Civiltà dei Roamni, Milano 1992
J.M.C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World, London 1971